Artisans composed the largest sector of the male working community in colonial and early national cities (most notably Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Charleston). They learned their trades during an apprenticeship that might last from ages 13 to 21 under the tutelage of a master craftsman (though the period was often shorter). Apprenticeship was a legal contract requiring the apprentice to work for the master for a specified number of years in return for room, board, instruction in the trade, and rudimentary schooling. After completion of an apprenticeship, the trained craftsman advanced to journeyman standing.

Journeymen were skilled wage laborers, many of whom traveled from place to place, looking for work. The amount of time a man would spend as a journeyman depended on talent and fortune. If he were highly skilled and could find capital to buy equipment and rent space, he could open his own store and become a master craftsman, hiring journeymen and apprentices.

Master craftsmen and journeymen were part of the "middling sort" (middle classes) of North American urban society. They ranged from the lower end, most noticeably the shoemakers and tailors, to the upper ranks, such as the goldsmiths, silversmiths, and watchmakers, with the middle tier including butchers, bakers, cabinetmakers. A cabinetmaker could be quite poor, doing rudimentary repair work and making crude furniture--or, if he were one of a city's finest craftsmen, such as New York's Duncan Phyfe, he could become quite prominent and employ many journeymen (Phyfe had 100).

From the mid-colonial period on, many artisans achieved "freedom" of the city, a carry over from the English system, which allowed qualified craftsmen to work where they liked and also allowed them to vote--an important factor since voting was normally restricted to property owners. In many colonial elections, artisans made the difference between competing factions. This central role brought them political importance as they were vigorously courted by individuals contending for office. Artisans were crucial to the resistance movement (1764-75) against British imperial regulation. They were at the core of the Sons of Liberty and other extralegal organizations that led the anti-British demonstrations against the hated Stamp Act (1765), and they protested to limit imports and exports. Artisans made up the heart of the crowd that dumped tea into Boston harbor during the infamous Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773).

As war broke out with Great Britain, artisans became active in the government of the cities, particularly in New York and Philadelphia. In New York they formed the Committee of Mechanics, which demanded and achieved a share in the city's governance after British control dissolved. While there were artisans who became Loyalists, craftsmen usually tended to be radicals, asserting a greater political voice in government. In New York they opposed the merchants and demanded a declaration of independence. Paying close attention to the words of Thomas Paine, they also insisted that the new constitution of New York State be ratified by a popular vote of the people. In Philadelphia, after the Quaker leadership abandoned politics, as did the proprietary faction (those who supported the colony's proprietary family, the Penns), a new group of leaders emerged that included prominent artisans. During the 1790s, artisans at first aligned themselves with the Federalist Party, as advocates of a strong central government. Such a government could enforce tariffs against British imports that threatened to undersell craftsmen's products. However, they were also backers of the French Revolution (1789-99) and many joined the Democratic-Republican Societies. With the rise of the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican Party, many artisans shifted allegiance, particularly those in the less-wealthy trades, attracted by the party's stance that respected their citizens' right. They were also repelled by Federalist Party tactics that at times attempted to coerce mechanics with threats regarding their employment. These low-paid artisans contributed significantly to the victory of Thomas Jefferson in the election of 1800. In the early decades of the 19th century, artisans remained pivotal in elections in the nation's cities, generally favoring the Jeffersonians.

Developments in the economy had a direct impact on artisans: Expanding trade increased the total number of tradesmen, providing greater opportunities for some while limiting opportunities for others. The gap between masters and journeymen grew in several trades as successful masters needed to command more capital and fewer journeymen became masters. These developments were especially marked in major trades such as printing, shoemaking, cabinetmaking, tailoring, and construction (masons and carpenters). Journeymen in these trades began to form trade societies that went beyond the traditional benevolent functions of education and welfare for the sick and aged and burials for the deceased. The new societies espoused walkouts as a tactic to compel masters to hire only society members and particularly not to hire semiskilled men who had never completed their apprenticeship. In so doing they were the forerunners of the labor movement in the United States.

Bibliography:

1) Howard B. Rock, Artisans of the New Republic: The Tradesmen of New York City in the Age of Jefferson (New York: New York University Press, 1979)

2) W. J. Rorabaugh, The Craft Apprentice: From Franklin to the Machine Age in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986)

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