After beginning the French and Indian War (1754-63) as allies of Great Britain, the Cherokee fought British Americans from 1759 to 1761 in a conflict triggered by Carolinian desire for Cherokee land and frontier distrust of all Native Americans. The Cherokee reluctantly sent about 300 warriors to Pennsylvania to join British general John Forbes's expedition against Fort Duquesne. Poorly treated and not respected by Forbes, the Cherokee left his army disenchanted with the British. On their return to their own lands in autumn 1758, at least 30 Cherokee were killed by Virginian frontiersman who hated all Indians, whether they were allies or enemies. Several Cherokee reacted to this violence by attacking some settlers in the Carolinas following traditional Native American practices of retaliatory killing as a way to "cover" the dead. In reaction to the raids, Governor William Henry Lyttelton of South Carolina invaded Cherokee lands in autumn 1759 despite a Cherokee delegation that had arrived in Charleston apologizing for the violence and seeking peace. As he marched off to the backcountry in September, Lyttelton took 22 Cherokee headmen as hostages. Although this incursion successfully destroyed several Cherokee towns, ultimately Lyttelton and his 1,200 fighting men did not accomplish very much. Illness, compounded by a smallpox outbreak in late December, led to massive desertions and then a retreat. When he arrived at Charleston, Lyttelton declared victory, even though negotiations with the Cherokee had led to no settlement. The hostages were placed in Fort Prince George.

In early 1760 the situation in South Carolina deteriorated. Smallpox followed the army to Charleston, and at least 4,000 people were infected in the city. In February Cherokee warriors killed an officer outside of Fort Prince George. Retaliating, the soldiers murdered all 22 Cherokee hostages. This action led to extensive Cherokee raids on the frontier, creating panic and an exodus from the back-country. Colonel Archibald Montgomery marched into Cherokee territory with 1,200 newly arrived regulars, 300 South Carolina Rangers, and some allied Indians, hoping to reach the 200 troops stationed at Fort Loudoun deep in the interior. Montgomery's column destroyed some villages but was ambushed near Etchoe, losing about 20 killed and 70 wounded. Like Lyttelton the year before, Montgomery claimed victory and retreated from the frontier. On August 7, 1760, the garrison at Fort Loudoun surrendered with the promise that they would be allowed to travel safely to the nearest British outpost. Two days later, however, a group of Cherokee attacked the withdrawing garrison, killing 32 and taking the rest as captives.

By 1761, the destruction of crops and villages having taken its toll, many of the Cherokee were ready for peace. However, the British were determined to punish them on yet another expedition. Major James Grant led 2,800 regulars, militia, rangers, and Indian allies on a 33-day incursion that destroyed 15 towns and 1,000 acres of corn. He met limited resistance but did fight a battle at Cowee on June 10, 1761, with 10 men killed and 50 wounded. More successful than his predecessors, Grant, too, eventually turned around before getting to the furthest Cherokee towns. But his invasion led to a treaty with Attakullakulla and other chiefs that established peace and arranged for an exchange of prisoners.

Both the British Americans and Native Americans suffered dramatically as a result of this conflict, but ultimately the Cherokee, despite intense resistance, ceded land and suffered greater losses.

Bibliography:

1) Thomas M. Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).

2) Ian K. Steele, Warpaths: Invasions of North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

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