The positivist perspective, generally associated with the natural sciences and law enforcement, defines deviance as intrinsically real and makes three assumptions about it. The first is absolutism, the belief that something intrinsically real regarding the deviants' behavior sets them apart from conventional society. Second is objectivism, the reality that deviance can be objectively studied and quantified, such as with statistical police reports. Third is determinism, the belief that variables outside of the deviant's control will cause the deviant act. Examples of positivist theories would include Robert Merton's strain theory, Edwin Sutherland's social learning theory, and control theory, exemplified by Hirschi's social bond and self-control theory.

Strain Theory

This positivist theory exemplifies the sociological perspective called structural-functionalism. Merton had argued that every society encourages its citizens to pursue certain legitimate goals, such as wealth, with corresponding legitimate means, such as obtaining an education and a career. However, some people may experience a disconnect between the legitimate means and goals and thus experience strain, prompting five modes of adaptation (responses). First is conformity, when the goals and means are accepted (e.g., a college graduate pursuing wealth through a career). Second is innovation, where a person "innovates" new illegitimate means toward the goal (e.g., becoming a drug dealer or prostitute). Third is ritualism, by which a person accepts the means but cares little about the goal (e.g., doing enough to keep a job without extra effort or interest in obtaining promotions and bonuses). Fourth is retreatism, where the individual rejects all legitimate means and goals, (e.g., by becoming a hermit or severe drug user). Fifth is rebellion, when a person rejects both means and goals and replaces them with his or her own alternative set (e.g., the hippies of the 1960s who rejected American materialism in favor of a natural way of life).

Social Learning Theory

Differential association is an interactionist sociological perspective which treats deviance as a socially learned behavior through interaction with deviants. Edwin Sutherland argued that individuals associating more with people who have deviant ideas than with conformists are more likely to become deviant themselves. This is more likely to occur within small primary groups. Associating with deviants is only a first step, however. A person must also identify with the deviants and act accordingly before becoming one of them.

Control Theory

Control theory argues that conformity results from social controls placed on the individual by society. Travis Hirschi argued that everyone has an innate tendency to deviate from social norms. However, if our bond to society is strong, we will choose to conform. Accordingly, people bond to society in four ways, namely (1) attachment to conventional people; (2) commitment to conformity by investing in conventional activities such as an education; (3) involvement in conventional activities, which reduces the time available for other activities; and (4) a belief in the validity of the existing social rules.

Bibliography:

1) Akers, Ronald L. and Gary F. Jensen, eds. 2003. Social Learning Theory and the Explanation of Crime: A Guide for the New Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

2) Becker, Howard S. 1953. "Becoming a Marijuana User." American Journal of Sociology 59:235-42.

3) Becker, Howard S. 1997. Outsiders. New York: Free Press. Braithwaite, John. 1989. Crime, Shame and Reintegration. New York: Cambridge University Press.

4) Chambliss, William. 1973. "The Saints and the Roughnecks." Society 11:24-31.

5) Curra, John. 1999. The Relativity of Deviance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

6) Gaylord, Mark S. 1987. Edwin Sutherland and the Origins of Differential Association Theory. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

7) Goffman, Erving. [1963] 1986. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.

8) Hirschi, Travis. 2001. Causes of Delinquency. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

9) Lilly, Robert J., Francis T. Cullen, and Richard A. Ball. 2006. Criminological Theory. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

10) Martin, Clarence Augustus. 2006. Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

11) McLean, Bethany and Peter Elkind. 2003. Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron. New York: Portfolio.

12) Merton, Robert K. 1968. Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Free Press.

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