Although, from the point of view of perception, Turner remained attached to the classical framework of perspective, his researches in the science of light led to a method of representation which anticipated the divisionist technique of the French impressionists, whereby the effects of light were reconstructed 'equivalently' by breaking them up into their component spectral colors. In this way Turner was able to give 'substance' to space. But, by raising space to the same terms as substance, Turner anticipated not only the impressionists, but also the synthetic cubists. The 'equivalence' of Turner, like that of the impressionists, was limited to light; that of the expressionists to color. But it was left to the cubists to carry these researches into the field of substance by analyzing and breaking it up in a similar way. With the idea of equivalence of substance as well as of light and color, the way was open to the development of pure painting in which the schism between subject and object, content and material were united. For the first time the visual arts could function in terms analogous to music.

That Turner's experiments were premature is evident from the fact that his greatest works were mistaken for senile decay. His death, therefore, marked for the time being the limits of English achievement in painting. The vacuum which followed forced the English artist to turn once more to the Continent. Nevertheless, in spite of its inability to make any further development, English painting maintained its individuality and essential understanding of the art. In so far as there has been a modern movement in England, therefore, it has in no sense of the word been an academic version of that on the Continent. On the contrary the principal artists have achieved a deeply personal contribution which is unique in the history of modern art.

As the means of representation of nature in painting gradually changed from optical illusion to conceptual signification, so painting and sculpture necessarily became increasingly abstract. The question of abstract figuration, however, is one of degree; that is to say, the degree in which a work of art signifies, rather than imitates, the objects and effects it seeks to represent. Today the dynamic and synthetic idea of reality, presented by modern physics and philosophy, has placed 'nature' outside the range of direct sensation. As in the Middle Ages, therefore, abstract representation is once more necessary.

Abstract representation first found expression in cubism and fauvism. The cubists and fauves, however, following immediately upon the classical tradition of sensual representation, still conceived their works in terms of' sensible objects. Thus portraiture, still life, landscape, and genre still remained the subject matter for painting, although conceived in a new dynamic and kinetic form. In England the parallel movement in this direction was made by Wyndham Lewis and the vorticists. For certain artists, however, the world of particular objects and sensible effects became integrated in their minds with the larger perspective of the cosmic whole. The idea of the relation between man and nature began to change. 'From the sculptor's point of view', writes Barbara Hepworth, 'one must either be the spectator of the object or the object itself. For a few years I became the object.' It was this change of the centre of gravity from outside to within and from the particular to the universal which finally led to the complete abandonment of representation in the particular sense. Only in completely abstract terms could the new idea of universality and personal integration find its true visual expression. . .

Free term papers are not written to satisfy your specific instructions. You can use our professional writing services to buy a custom written research paper, term paper, or essay on Art at affordable price. CustomTermPapers is the best solution for those who seek help in writing term papers, essays, and research papers related to Art and other relevant topics.