The excellence of Roman portraiture has long been recognized. During four centuries, artists produced a succession of often masterly portraits, changing in style from generation to generation. The long history of the Roman Empire--its achievements and limitations--is vividly reflected in the personalities and styles of these portraits.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art owns a valuable collection of Roman portraits--over a hundred busts, statues, and heads, in marble, bronze, and other materials, both in the round and in relief. They comprise examples dating from the Republic to the Flavian age, from Trajan to Constantine.

We may begin our study with several realistic heads of stern Republicans (nos. 1-7), which bring before us the rugged, virile men to whom Rome owed her rise to power. Foremost among them are two marble busts (nos. 1, 2) that invite comparison with the leaders of the American business world. The sculptors who carved these powerful heads inherited the Greek tradition of form and profited by the experience of the past. As late Greek and late Etruscan portraits were realistic, it was natural that the same style should be maintained in the early Roman heads. Realism, moreover, was stimulated by the old Roman custom of making waxen images of the faces of the dead. And it suited the temper of Republican Rome. In comparing these heads with the realistic portraits of Hellenistic Greece we are struck by fundamental differences, as well as a general likeness. The Greeks were philosophers, idealists. The Romans were men of action, realists. They were laying the foundation of the Roman Empire, whereas the Greeks had founded European philosophy, art, science, and scholarship--achievements which almost make us forget their conquest of the East.

Several heads on engraved gems depict wellknown leaders of late Republican Rome. One resembles portraits identified as Julius Cæsar (no. 12); three represent Marcus Junius Brutus (nos. 9-11); one of the latter has a dagger in the field, recalling the part Brutus played in the murder of the great Julius.

With the reign of Augustus ( 31 B.C.A.D. 14) a new style was initiated. The portraits of Augustus and of the Julio-Claudian house show a restrained classicism in striking contrast to the realism of the Republican heads. It is obvious that Rome, by the end of the first century B.C., had become a cosmopolitan center, with Greek influence of the earlier, classical periods paramount in art. Doubtless the temperate character of Augustus, which dominated the history of his time, influenced also its artistic expression in the direction of idealism.

Several certain and possible portraits of Augustus are included in the collection (nos. 1627), among them three cameos, a diminutive ivory head (no. 20), and a colossal marble one (no. 16). The latter, with its wide-open eyes, is one of the few which convey in some measure the penetrating radiance of Augustus's eyes referred to by Roman writers. It reminds us of Suetonius's description: "He had clear, bright eyes, in which he liked to have it thought that there was a kind of divine power, and it greatly pleased him whenever he looked keenly at anyone, if he let his face fall as if before the radiance of the sun." A portrait of a young man (no. 27) may represent Augustus in his youth, before the imperial type had become systematized; and a small head crowned with a laurel wreath (no. 19) bears a general resemblance to Augustus and is, perhaps, a likeness of him as emperor. The fine bronze statue of a boy (no. 29) may represent one of Augustus's grandsons, Gaius or Lucius Cæsar; at least the type suggests a member of the Julio-Claudian family, and a comparison with the small heads of Gaius and Lucius on the coins (cf. no. 31) bears out the identification in a general way. Which of the two grandsons the statue may represent is hard to say. The marble head, recently found at Thasos, and which may perhaps be identified as Lucius Cæsar by a dedicatory inscription found nearby ( Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 1939, p. 320) does not settle the question. The family resemblance was evidently strong.

The shapes of the bust and the coiffures of the women often supply valuable clues for dating--for fashions in hairdressing changed then as they do today. For instance, the portrait (no. 27) has the small bust form of the Augustan age, including only the part of the chest adjoining the neck. The heads of a mother and daughter (nos. 34, 35) from a sepulchral relief have the characteristic coiffures of the period, one with a simple parting in the middle, the other with a plait above the forehead and wavy locks on either side. A comparison with the head (no. 7) also from a funerary relief, brings out the striking contrast in style and physiognomy between the Republican and Augustan periods. The portrait of a baby (no. 33) shows the interest taken by Augustan sculptors in young children. It may be compared with the children on the Ara Pacis and the little Eros in the statue of Augustus from Prima Porta in the Vatican.

Naturally, not all portraits of this epoch show the same generalizing tendency. In some the realism of the preceding age is still strong. Agrippa, the great general and builder to whom Augustus owed his decisive victory at Actium, is portrayed on coins and in a bust in the Louvre with overhanging eyebrows, furrowed forehead, and a somber expression. In a head in the Museum collection (no. 28) these characteristics are not in evidence though it was found with fragments of a bronze statue and a dedicatory inscription to Agrippa. It is argued that, originally, there might have been several statues and the head (no. 28) might have belonged to one of these. Another interesting problem is presented by a sensitive bronze head (no. 8) shown in the Altman collection in Gallery K 33, which has been dated by some in the Republican period (about 70 B.C.), by others in the late Augustan age. If Republican, the idealistic conception may be explained by Greek influence.

The classicist style continued through the Julio-Claudian epoch; for just as politically the Augustan organization functioned through the difficult years after Augustus's death, so in art the Augustan style held its own. The extravagance and violence of Augustus's successors and the misery they engendered are not immediately reflected in the portraiture.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection includes several portraits of the type identified with Caligula ( A.D. 37-41), two fine busts, one of marble, the other of bronze; a small bronze head, a cameo, and a gold coin (nos. 36-40); also a youth with an incipient beard (no. 41), in the style of the emperor Nero ( A.D. 54-68); and a roundfaced girl who bears some resemblance to Nero and may represent one of his daughters (no. 54). The engraved gems of this period comprise portraits which have been tentatively identified with the young Octavia, sister of Augustus (no. 47); Nero Drusus, the brother of Tiberius (no. 43); and Antonia, the wife of Nero Drusus (no. 45). One represents the emperor Nero (no. 49). A stone with the bust of a man of the so-called Maecenas type has the signature of the artist Apollonios (no. 15). Several such Greek names appear in signatures on early imperial gems with Roman portraits. Evidently Greek immigrant artists made not only statues and reliefs with Greek mythological subjects, but also portraits of individual Romans.

With the practical, bourgeois Flavian emperors ( A.D. 69-96) the Roman genius for realism reasserted itself. The renewed stress on individuality comes out clearly in two lifelike male heads (nos. 52, 53) and in the bust of Cominia Tyche from a sepulchral monument (no. 56). Compared with the Republican portraits the individuality of these later heads is less harsh and powerful, the forms being less strongly accentuated. Their features are not so set and their faces are more expressive of passing moods. The inscription on the sepulchral monument reads: "To the Spirits of the Dead. To the most saintly Cominia Tyche, his most chaste and loving wife, Lucius Annius Festus. Died at the age of 27 years, 11 months, 28 days. Also for himself and his descendants." Cominia Tyche wears the characteristic female coiffure of her time with a high honeycombed front.

For another century the greatness of Rome continued unimpaired, then came a slow disintegration. Under the emperor Trajan ( A.D. 98-117), whose reign was largely spent in new conquests and in consolidating the frontiers, the Roman Empire had reached the limits of possible or wise expansion. With Hadrian ( A.D. 117-138) and Antoninus Pius ( A.D. 138-161) ensued an era of peace and widespread prosperity comparable to the beneficent reign of Augustus. Through improved intercommunication, the encouragement of provincial self-government, and a spirit of cosmopolitan tolerance, the Empire now became closely knit.

Museum’s Trajanic portraits include a fine series of male and female heads (nos. 57-59, 63, 66-68), a sepulchral monument of a woman and her two sons (no. 65), and the bust of a child (no. 60). Instead of the suave individualization of the Flavian portraits, these heads have a somewhat hard and troubled expression. The constant wars of Trajan must have created an atmosphere of strain. This is especially obvious in the male heads (nos. 57, 59), and also in some degree in several of the women resembling members of the imperial house--Plotina, the wife of Trajan (no. 63), and Marciana, his sister (no. 66). The strain is visibly lessened in the following generation, to judge at least from the heads resembling Matidia, the niece of Trajan (no. 67), and her daughter Sabina, the wife of Hadrian (no. 70). Parts of the elaborate coiffures of these ladies were occasionally carved separately, and are missing. A fragmentary bust, perhaps intended for the emperor Hadrian, is interesting for a technical reason, being carved hollow (no. 69). This emperor introduced the fashion of wearing a beard--a vogue that soon became common throughout the Empire. The bust form, which in the Flavian period had become gradually larger, now included the whole outline of the shoulder. Two heads of non- Roman types, one with long hair, evidently a barbarian (no. 61), and the other perhaps an Easterner, with an intelligent, dreamy expression (no. 62), bring to mind the cosmopolitan character of secondcentury Rome, which evoked Juvenal's remark, "The Orontes has flowed into the Tiber".

Several portraits may be assigned to the Antonine period and the late second century .D. Among them are two marble heads of Antoninus Pius ( A.D. 138-161), one (no. 73) in excellent condition, the other (no. 74) from the Giustiniani collection, with the face reworked in modern times. A stucco relief (no. 76) has a representation of a barbarian kneeling before the emperor. A large head from a relief (no. 81) may be identified as Lucius Verus ( A.D. 161-169). A bust of a young man (no. 82) has a lion's skin above the support, recalling the ambition of the emperor Commodus (who received the title of Imperator in A.D. 176) to be a second Hercules. The high polish of the faces and the deeply drilled locks, which create strong shadows, impart to these heads a strongly pictorial quality. The same pictorial quality based on the play of light and shade is evident in the treatment of the eye. The pupil is indicated as two adjoining dots, to give direction and expression to the glance. (Occasionally this rendering is found in tentative form as early as the Trajanic period, for instance in no. 66, where the pupil is rendered by an engraved segment.) This look from within outwards is suggestive of an inner life, and, together with a certain nobility of form, reminds us of the philosophical outlook of Marcus Aurelius, who was the outstanding figure of his time. The portraits of the women may be dated by their coiffures, so far, at least, as they correspond to those of imperial women on coins. Thus a sepulchral relief of a woman and her son (no. 86) can be assigned to the time of Faustina the Elder (died A.D. 141), the wife of Antoninus Pius, for the hair is coiled on top of her head in the style worn by that empress. Again, a small head from a relief (no. 78) with hair coiled midway between the top of the head and the nape of the neck may be dated in the time of Faustina the Younger, the wife of Marcus Aurelius, who is shown in coin types as wearing her hair in that manner.

Marcus Aurelius ( A.D. 161-180) was succeeded by his worthless son Commodus ( A.D. 180-192), whose twelve years of misrule seriously weakened the Empire. The reign of the able soldier-emperor Septimius Severus ( A.D. 193-211) ushered in the third century. Politically this century was one of gradual disintegration, with the menace of barbarian invasions becoming increasingly acute and with one shortlived emperor following another. The reins of power had passed from the state to the army, which set up, deposed, and murdered emperors according to its will. Artistically, however, the third century was one of the great periods in Roman portraiture. A new sense of animation is observable, perhaps reflecting the restlessness of the time. Two excellent portraits of women (nos. 88, 89) with gracious personalities remind us of the important role played by the Syrian women of the Imperial court in the early third century. Soft and flowing drapery envelops one head and elegant waves of hair frame the other. The latter (no. 89) resembles Julia Domna, the able wife of Septimius Severus. The bust form now includes the whole upper part of the body, sometimes one entire arm, and the portrait assumes almost the character and action of a statue. It is interesting to compare these two third-century ladies with the rather plain, less worldly women of the time of Trajan and Hadrian, and to contrast the later treatment based on an effect of light and shade in space with the earlier compact, solid forms. Observe the turn of the head and the glance of the eye given to the ladies of the later period. They appear less selfcontained, as if taking possession of the space around them. Two heads in relief (nos. 91, 92) come from sarcophagi of the early third century.

Among the male portraits of this period perhaps the most important is the head of a statue of Caracalla ( A.D. 211-217), full of energy and will power (on the cover and no. 107). It shows this emperor's characteristic traits, the thick neck turned rather sharply to the left, the protruding muscles of the forehead with wrinkled brows and the two oblique swellings above the eyes which impart a frowning, somewhat sinister expression to the face, the thick plebeian nose with an oblique furrow across the bridge, the mobile mouth with curving lips, and the cleft chin. The head once formed part of a statue of which fragments of the legs remain. Portraits of Septimius Severus with his family and of Julia Domna are shown on a gold coin (no. 101) and on two engraved gems (nos. 100, 102); and portraits of Caracalla appear on an onyx cameo and several coins (nos. 103, 105, 106).

It is noteworthy that from the second century A.D. on, the custom of wearing a seal with the portrait of a member of the ruling family seems to have declined. At least comparatively few examples of such stones are known.

A number of marble heads may be assigned to the first half of the third century by their general resemblance to portraits of known emperors. A life-size bust (no. 96) and a small head (no. 94) are probably of the period of Maximinus the Thracian ( A.D. 235-238); a head and two busts (nos. 95, 98, 99) are perhaps about contemporary with Balbinus ( A.D. 238), the aristocratic bon vivant of his time, and a bust (no. 97) may be of the time of Philip the Arabian ( A.D. 244-249). In all these heads the hair and beard are no longer indicated as curly locks in high relief, as in the Antonine age, but as short cuts or closely adhering ringlets on the modeled surfaces of the skull and jaws.

The middle of the third century is represented in the collection by the remarkable bronze statue (no. 109) of the emperor Trebonianus Gallus ( A.D. 251-253). It is said to have been found in Rome in the early nineteenth century, and was in a private collection in Russia before it reached this country. The identification rests on the striking resemblance of the head to the coin type of that emperor (no. 108). We may note the small head perched on the large middle-aged body without regard to any scheme of proportion. Another mid-third-century work is the head from a relief (no. 93).

The story of Roman portraiture ends with the colossal head of the emperor Constantine (no. 110), the first Christian emperor and the founder of Constantinople ( A.D. 306-337). Henceforth the chief seat of the Empire was no longer in Italy but in the East. In contrast to the third-century portraits with their sense of life and movement, the head of Constantine is carved in a few distinct planes. The outlines of the large features are clear-cut and accentuated. This treatment of the contours stresses the two-dimensional design and gives the head a monumental quality. The way is prepared for the monumental figures of Byzantine mosaics on the walls of Christian basilicas.

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