Theories and empirical studies of pluralism and its social problems offer different perspectives on the relationship between groups and society. Political theorists survey the political structures of pluralist countries such as Canada, India, and the United States and propose models for the proper relationship between cultural populations and the modern state. Some social scientists investigate how groups form from a macro-level perspective, examining the broader economic, political, and social forces, like race and racial distinctions, that shape institutions. For example, some scholars argue that the rise of modernity and Western capitalism depended fundamentally on processes of racialization that justified the exploitation of nonwhite "others" from Africa and the Americas. Other scholars point to the organizational processes of ethno-racial formation, such as the five racial categories created by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget in 1977 for data collection. Still others examine group formation and its related social problems closer to the ground by looking within groups, at their boundaries, social networks, and identities. Research on ethnic groups, for instance, focuses on immigrants' economic activity and their children's socialization, as well as the impact of churches, geographic concentration, and transnational movement.

Another common research area looks at the resources and opportunities available to racial minorities, women, and other historically excluded groups. Many sociologists study minority group representation and stratification in different sectors of society. For instance, the current U.S. power elite--those who own large banks and corporations, fund political campaigns, and serve in government--includes more women, people of color, and openly homosexual men and women than it did in the 1950s, but white, Christian males still predominate. The new and old members alike tend to come from wealthy families and attend similar private schools. A related approach examines how organizations and law can increase minority group representation. For example, workforce policies that assign responsibility for improving diversity, such as affirmative action plans, move more women and black men into managerial ranks than do diversity trainings that try to minimize bias among managers.

References:

1) Hollinger, David. 2000. Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism. New York: Basic Books.

2) Parekh, Bhikhu. 2000. Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

3) Parrillo, Vincent N. 2008. Diversity in America. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

4) Schuck, Peter. 2003. Diversity in America: Keeping Government at a Safe Distance. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

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