Segregation is the separation of groups based on social characteristics. These characteristics may be either ascribed, such as race, or achieved, such as economic status. In a segregated society, the separated groups may have little or no contact with each other. It is this lack of contact between groups that contributes to the social problems associated with segregation. This occurs primarily through two dimensions: lack of exposure and unequal access to resources.

The separation of groups limits contact between groups, potentially leading to the development of prejudices and the continuation of stereotypes. Segregation separates members of groups and in doing so may perpetuate stereotypes by denying them opportunities to interact. Social networks that exclude specific groups may be perceived as biased or discriminatory because networks integrate individuals into the greater social context and segregated networks limit the exposure of individuals to the "other."

When groups are segregated spatially, separate institutions also emerge, and this can lead to unequal access to society's resources. Following the U.S. Civil War, many southern states enacted Jim Crow laws enforcing previously informal norms of segregation of blacks and whites. These laws justified racial segregation using the argument that public facilities such as railroads and schools could be "separate but equal." The Supreme Court case of Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 upheld this doctrine. It would not be until 1954 (Brown v. Board of Education) that public school segregation would be declared unconstitutional. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 signaled the end of the Jim Crow laws.

In the U.S. context, the civil rights movement of the 1960s explicitly addressed segregation based on ascribed characteristics of race and gender. Yet, even when legal support for equal opportunity exists, segregation in the form of social exclusion may occur. With social exclusion, individuals may experience not physical segregation but social marginalization that limits employment and earnings opportunities.

Segregation has social, cultural, and spatial contexts and occurs as the result of law (de jure segregation) or by cultural practice (de facto segregation). Many dimensions of segregation, including age, gender, disability status, race, ethnicity, and economic status, can be identified in societies worldwide. In the United States and Europe, segregation in housing and segregation in education are two of the most commonly studied forms of segregation.

Researchers are increasingly focusing on segregation as a multilevel phenomenon. This reflects the reality that individuals are embedded in social contexts that shape their access to other individuals and resources in society. While individual and group-level characteristics are often the focal point of segregation, segregation occurs through social institutions such as schools, occupations, and residential communities. For example, the housing opportunities available to minorities are framed in the context of housing segregation, which is often examined from a neighborhood and community context; glass ceiling effects for women are framed in the context of gender segregation in the workplace and occupational context.

There are both voluntary and involuntary causes of segregation. Voluntary segregation often occurs at the individual or group level in terms of social networks. Involuntary segregation occurs when individuals and groups are denied opportunities because of one or more characteristics. At its most basic, voluntary and involuntary segregation can be cast in terms of individual preferences versus discrimination. For example, in the United States, minority residents may prefer to live in mixed neighborhoods, but whites may be unwilling to sell their homes to minority families.

Multiple dimensions of segregation may also interact. For example, residential segregation by race can be compounded by economic segregation. A longstanding debate continues about the relative importance of race and socioeconomic status. Increases in levels of segregation are often attributed to factors rooted in group tensions and institutionalized discrimination. Decreases in segregation reflect changes in social policies as well as social norms such as increasing tolerance and more egalitarian gender norms.

Bibliography:

1) Allen, Walter R. and Reynolds Farley. 1986. "The Shifting Social and Economic Tides of Black America, 1950-1980." Annual Review of Sociology 12:277-306.

2) Duncan, Otis D. and Beverly Duncan. 1955. "A Methodological Analysis of Segregation Indices." American Sociological Review 20:200-217.

3) Jargowsky, Paul A. 1997. Poverty and Place: Ghettos, Barrios, and the American City. New York: Russell Sage.

4) Massey, Douglas A. and Nancy A. Denton. 1988. "The Dimensions of Residential Segregation." Social Forces 67(2):281-315.

5) Massey, Douglas A. and Nancy A. Denton. 1993. American Apartheid. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

6) Reardon, Sean F. and David O'Sullivan. 2004. "Measures of Spatial Segregation." Sociological Methodology 34:121-62.

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