Vigilantes are those who take enforcement of the law or moral code into their own hands. The term developed in ancient Rome, and today it applies to citizens carrying out frontier justice when they perceive established authorities as weak, corrupt, and/or insufficient. The word vigilante originated in Spain. Where no established law exists, private citizens may find it necessary to impose the values of their group. Lawyers call vigilantism "extra-judicial self-help," and many often equate it with vengeance. However, vigilantism becomes vilified when it leads to such criminal behavior as lynching.

Although a worldwide activity, vigilantism found fertile ground in the United States, beginning in colonial times and extending into the early federal period. By the late 1700s into the 1800s, groups that took matters into their own hands formed committees to identify and punish immigrants suspected of crimes. After fading for a while, its renaissance as an urban phenomenon began in California in the mid-1850s when members of the community started a vigilante movement for law and order. Such vigilantism led to situations where large crowds took prisoners from authorities and beat them severely before lynching them. Postcards recording lynching's showed proud participants, as well as residents (including children) dressed up to watch. The event became a cause for celebration.

Interestingly, local officials seldom revealed the identities of mob leaders because they viewed lynching as acceptable, necessary, and understandable. The violence reached an all-time high in the period from 1890 to 1902. Though the trend slowed after 1909, it continued into the 1930s. Vigilantism later resurfaced with the Guardian Angels (a New York City volunteer group founded in 1979 to combat subway crime), anti-abortionists, border security groups, and bounty hunters. One notable controversial case of vigilantism occurred in 1984, when Bernard Goetz--dubbed the subway vigilante--shot four young black men on a subway in anticipation of their intending to rob him. In the 1980s, vigilantism took the form of death squads in Central America, and in the 1990s, cyber hackers went after sexual predators, terrorists, and spammers on the Internet.

Other criminal acts often accompany crimes of vigilantism. Depending on the severity of these other acts, the sentence for vigilante behavior will vary. Most offenders get probation for their actions, after a negotiated plea bargain.

Although characteristics vary, the typical vigilante is a middle-class male. Unlike self-defense (which is spontaneous), vigilantism is usually premeditated. It most often occurs as a group act by concerned citizens who share a common goal. Participation is voluntary, and offenders are most likely to be private citizens. Vigilantes are not just members of the community; many are retired police and military personnel. Some of these groups are quite organized and violent. Others only threaten to use force. There are two main types of vigilantes. Lone wolves are disorganized and easily caught, sometimes deliberately so, such as "suicide by cop." Conversely, instigators are well organized and tend to involve others (a close associate or small group) in their plans. A distinction also exists between crime control vigilantes (e.g., bounty hunters) and social control vigilantes (e.g., community members or concerned residents).

Vigilantism is a subtype of political violence. Unlike domestic terrorism, vigilantism seeks to help the social order. For example, a widely tolerated vigilante activity in Islamic societies is the practice of "honor killing," when female members of the household shame the family name. Similarly, many Western nations and some U.S. states had laws justifying the homicide of a spouse if caught in the act of adultery in the conjugal home.

References:

1) Abrahams, Ray. 1999. Vigilant Citizens: Vigilantism and the State. Cambridge, England: Polity Press.

2) Culberson, William C. 1990. Vigilantism: Political History of Private Power in America. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

3) Fletcher, George P. 1990. A Crime of Self-Defense: Bernhard Goetz and the Law on Trial. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

4) French, Peter A. 2001. The Virtues of Vengeance. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.

5) Johnston, Les. 1996. "What Is Vigilantism?" British Journal of Criminology 36:220-36.

6) Lott, John R., Jr. 1998. "The Concealed-Handgun Debate." Journal of Legal Studies 27:221-43.

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