The Andes Mountains are one of the world's longest and highest mountain ranges, running the entire 4,500-mile (7,241 kilometers) length of South America's western coast, from Colombia in the north to Argentina and Chile in the south. The ancient Andean civilizations arose in the central portion of the Andes and along the coastal plains to the west; this area included almost all of present-day Peru and parts of Bolivia, northern Argentina, and Ecuador. In this region there are a variety of extreme climates and geographies, ranging from arid coastal deserts to high mountain peaks and volcanoes to fertile highland plains.

A narrow and extremely dry strip of coastal plains runs along the coast of Peru. There is virtually no rainfall on these plains. Cutting through this coastal desert are about fifty rivers running down from the nearby mountains, which create the system of valleys. Many of the rivers did not run all the way to the coast, and some were dry part of the year. The coastal people of ancient times settled in these river valleys. Good water sources in the dry coastal area were fundamental to the early Andean societies. Water played a major part in their religions, politics, arts, and economy.

The foothills (hills at the base of a mountain range) of the Andes rise abruptly out of the dry plains. Beyond them is the steep ascent to the mountain peaks, which rise to elevations as high as 20,000 feet (6,096 meters) in some places. In the central part of the Andes, a high plateau lies between two parallel ranges (the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Oriental). This plateau--called an altiplano or puna--stands at a dizzying altitude of 12,000 to 16,500 feet (3,658 to 5,029 meters). Areas above 15,000 feet (4,572 meters) are extremely cold and covered in snow year round. Between the mountain peaks, there are fertile valleys ranging from 7,500 to 12,000 feet (2,286 to 3,658 meters) in elevation. The mountains, like water, were sacred to many of the early Andean societies. Temples and pyramids often faced nearby peaks and were sometimes built in their image. East of the Andean mountain range lies dense tropical rainforest, marking the end of the Andean civilization region. Although these regions were never incorporated (or added into) Andean societies, they provided many essential products and profoundly influenced Andean arts and religions.

Extreme changes in altitude and climate were not the only environmental challenges to the Andean people. The Andean region has long been the center of volcanoes and earthquakes, and it also experiences periodic weather changes brought on by El Nino (an occasional phenomenon in which the waters of the Pacific Ocean along the coast of Ecuador and Peru warm up, usually around late December, sometimes bringing about flooding or drought [long periods of little or no rainfall]). All of the early Andean civilizations and societies were profoundly affected by earthquakes and El Nino, droughts and floods; in fact the decline of several civilizations is thought to have been the direct result of both events occurring one after the other. Additionally, off the coastal area of Peru there is a cold ocean current known as the Humboldt Current. The cold water causes deep waters to rise up, creating excellent conditions for all kinds of seafood. Unfortunately, when El Nino conditions warm up the coast, much of the seafood disappears.

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