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What marks him out - even more than the quality both of his swift tactical insight and deliberate strategic planning - is the "daemonic" strength of will and leadership with which he dragged a war weary army with unbroken success to Khodjend and the Punjab. He wrote his name across the Near and Middle East for two hundred years; and yet his work was ephemeral, in that the Empire which he left, even in the strong hands of the early Seleukids, was dying on its feet from the first generation. full text »  ▪   American History American Civil War ...If the south could not import supplies from other nations, it would be doomed. It lacked many important production facilities and depended on trade from Britain, France, and others. Therefore the United States placed and maintained a blockade to prevent the south from receiving these supplies. This would devastate the south and decrease the length of the war. Another disadvantage to the south is the possibility of the 3.6 million slaves turning their backs on the south and taking up arms. The slaves had great reasons for turning on the south and helping the north. full text »  ▪   Ancient Babylon Ancient Babylon Babylon is the Greek variant of Akkadian Babilu, an ancient city in Mesopotamia, modern Al Hillah, Iraq). It was the capital of the Babylonian empire from ca. 600 BC. In the Hebrew Bible, the name appears as Babel, interpreted by popular etymology to mean "confusion". Akkadian bab-ilu, which means "Gate of God", translating Sumerian Kadingirra. The earliest mention of Babylon is in a dated tablet of the reign of Sargon of Akkad (24th century BC short chr.), who made it the capital of his empire. Over the years its power and population waned. For centuries it was just another provincial town, until it became the capital of Hammurabi's empire (18th century BC). full text »  ▪   Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt The history of ancient Egypt begins around 3300 BC when Egypt became a unified Egyptian state. It survived as an independent state until about 1300 BC, however, archeological evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian society existed for a much longer period… full text »  ▪   Athens Athens Athens was the leading city in Greece during the greatest period of Greek civilization during the 1st millennium BC. During the "Golden Age" of Greece (roughly 500 BC to 300 BC) it was the Western world's leading cultural and intellectual center, and indeed it is in the ideas and practices of ancient Athens that what we now call "Western civilization" has its origins. After its days of greatness, Athens continued to be a prosperous city and a centre of learning until the late Roman period. The history of Athens is the longest of any city in Europe: Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least 3,000 years. It was the birthplace of democracy and it became the leading city of Ancient Greece in the first millennium BC. Its cultural achievements during the 5th century BC are said to have laid the foundations of western civilisation. After a long period of decline under the rule of the Byzantine Empire and the Ottoman Empire, Athens re-emerged in the 19th century as the capital of the independent Greek state. full text »  ▪   Caesar's Legions Caesar's Legions Caesar's legionary was no longer a citizen-soldier, as in the Punic wars; he was a professional, or a mercenary. He served for a livelihood, not as a duty. The legion was no longer set up in three lines according to property rating; it was marshaled in two or three lines of cohorts, the cohort being a body of four to six hundred men, ranked according to military qualities, and ten cohorts went to the legion. The men retained substantially the old equipment; they occupied in line a space of but three feet front instead of five. The intervals between cohorts had sensibly decreased. The camp and camp-followers, musicians, standards and petty details of all kinds remained much as before. Light troops and cavalry were recruited from conquered tribes. Each legion had six tribunes who commanded it in turn under a legate. The general staff of the army had quartermasters, aides, engineers, lictors, scouts and a body-guard. full text »  ▪   Caius Julius Caesar Caius Julius Caesar Caius Julius Caesar was born in 100 B. C. (some authorities hold 102 B. C.), of an old patrician family which had come from Alba under the reign of Tullus Hostilius, and which had enjoyed many public trusts. His father had been praetor and had died when Caesar was about sixteen years old. His mother, Aurelia, was of good stock of plebeian origin, and was a woman of exceptionally fine character. Caesar was proud of his forbears. In pronouncing the funeral oration of his aunt Julia, who had married Marius, Suetonius tells us that he thus spoke of his descent: "My aunt Julia, on the maternal side, is of the issue of kings; on the paternal side, she descends from the immortal gods; for her mother was a Marcia, and the family Marcius Rex are the descendants of Ancus Marcius. The Julia family, to which I belong, descends from Venus herself. Thus our house unites to the sacred character of kings, who are the most powerful among men, the venerated holiness of the gods, who keep kings themselves in subjection." full text »  ▪   Economics of Roman Empire Economics of Roman Empire Historians disagree as to the level of sophistication of the ancient economy. Some historians have seen broad analogies between the workings of the ancient economy and "subsistence economies" of areas of the developing world. Other historians suggest that the ancient economy was complex and had more in common with modern economies. This debate has at times been vitriolic and part of the reason for this difference of opinion lies in the nature of the source material. full text »  ▪   Egyptian Pyramids ▪   Egyptian Religion Egyptian Religion Egyptian mythology (or Egyptian religion) is the name for the succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt until the coming of Christianity and Islam. The timespan involved is nearly three thousand years, and beliefs varied considerably over time. As the leaders of the different groups gained and lost power, so the dominent beliefs merged and mutated. First, Ra and Atum became Atum-Ra, with Ra the dominant of the two, and then Ra became absorbed in his turn by Horus into Ra-Herakty. Ptah, on the other hand, after having become Ptah-Seker, was absorbed into Osiris, becoming Ptah-Seker-Osiris. The goddesses fared no better, with Hathor initially absorbing the details of the other goddesses, but ultimately being absorbed into Isis. Meanwhile, the villains similarly amalgamated, with Set, who was initially a hero, absorbing all the aspects of the other evil gods, which he was doomed to do after having been chosen as the favoured god of the Hyksos. At the end of this, all that remained, by the time of hellenic influence over Egypt, was the trinity of Osiris, Isis, and Horus, and their enemy, Set, as exemplified by the Legend of Osiris and Isis. The trinity had absorbed so many of the prior cults, that each was worhipped at their own cult centre - Abydos for Osiris, Dendara for Isis, and Edfu for Horus. Even by this stage, the amalgamation was continuing, with Osiris all but an aspect of Horus (and vice-versa), heading rapidly towards monotheism. Nethertheless, monotheism had briefly existed before, as, in the 13th century, Akhenaten had attempted to introduce the monotheistic worship of Aten, the sun-disc itself, although it was subsequently rejected. According to the Turin Royal Canon, ten gods ruled Egypt, each for long (but finite) periods, prior to the First Dynasty: Ptah, Ra, Su, Seb, Osiris, Set, Horus, Thoth, Ma'at, Horus. full text »  ▪   Emperor Vespasian Emperor Vespasian There is a change in the nature of our available source material from the reign of Vespasian onwards. For the narrative history of the period we have to rely on the fragments of Dio preserved in Byzantine epitomes and it is frequently difficult to date events mentioned. Tacitus does write about the period but his observations are contained in the Agricola and the Dialogus, neither of which pretend to provide narrative histories of the period. Our other main guide is Suetonius, but the biographies of the Flavians are less detailed than those of earlier emperors. As a result, though we can perceive at least some of the more general developments, it is almost impossible to produce a detailed narrative of events during these years. full text »  ▪   Fertile Crescent Fertile Crescent The Fertile Crescent is a region in the Middle East incorporating present-day Israel, West Bank, and Lebanon and parts of Jordan, Syria, Iraq, south-eastern Turkey and south-western Iran. The term "Fertile Crescent" was coined by University of Chicago archeologist James Henry Breasted. The Fertile Crescent has an impressive record of past human activity. As well as possessing many sites with the skeletal and cultural remains of both pre-modern and early modern humans (e.g. at Kebara Cave in Israel), later Pleistocene hunter-gatherers and Epipalaeolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers (the Natufians), this area is most famous for its sites related to the origins of agriculture. The western zone around the Jordan and upper Euphrates rivers gave rise to the first known Neolithic farming settlements (referred to as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)), which date to around 9,000 BC (and includes sites such as Jericho). This region, alongside Mesopotamia (which lies to the east of the Fertile Crescent, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates), also saw the emergence of early complex societies during the succeeding Bronze Age. There is also early evidence from this region for writing, and the formation of state-level societies. This has earned the region the nickname "The Cradle of Civilization." Since the Bronze Age, the region's natural fertility has been greatly extended by irrigation works, upon which much of its agricultural production continues to depend. The last two millennia have seen repeated cycles of decline and recovery as past works have fallen into disrepair through the replacement of states, to be replaced under their successors. Another ongoing problem has been salination - the seepage of salt water into irrigated farmland. As crucial as rivers were to the rise of civilization in the Fertile Crescent, they were not the only factor in the area's precocity. The Fertile Crescent had a climate which encouraged the evolution of many annual plants, which produce more edible seeds than perennials, and the region's dramatic variety of elevation gave rise to many species of edible plants for early experiments in cultivation. Most importantly, the Fertile Crescent possessed the wild progenitors of the eight Neolithic founder crops important in early agriculture (i.e. wild progenitors to emmer, einkorn, barley, flax, chick pea, pea, lentil, bitter vetch), and four of the five most important species of domesticated animals - cows, goats, sheep, and pigs - and the fifth species, the horse, lived nearby. full text »  ▪   Gallic War Gallic War The Gauls had been the terror of Rome for centuries. Whoever conquered them would be the national hero. Caesar understood this. His mission was to protect the Province; he purposed to subdue Gaul. He worked for his own ends as much as for Rome, but he understood his problem thoroughly. He considered the strategic field of Gaul with a clear eye, and committed no errors in his general plan. It was natural that he should make early mistakes of detail, for Caesar had not been brought up as a soldier; and we find a hesitancy in his first campaigns which later he threw off. His line of advance from the Province through central Gaul was in strict accord with the topographical values, and he studied the tribal instincts keenly. full text »  ▪   Greco-Persian Wars Greco-Persian Wars The Greco-Persian Wars or Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Greek world and the Persian Empire that started about 500 BC and lasted until 448 BC. At the end of the 6th century BC, Darius the Great ruled over an immense realm, from Western China to Eastern Europe. In 513 BC Darius for the first time conquered Thrace and Macedonia. Macedonian king Alexander I became his vassal. But the conquest of Asia Minor (546 BC) left the Ionian Greeks under Persian rule, while the other Greeks were free, a state of affairs that was going to cause trouble sooner or later. Persian satraps (governors) of Asia Minor installed tyrants in most of Ionian cities and forced Greeks to pay taxes for the "King of Kings". In 499 BC, instigated by Aristagoras in Miletus, the Ionian Revolt broke out; Ionian cities threw out the "tyrants" that the Persians had set over them, formed a league, and applied for help from the other Greeks. Athens sent twenty ships and Eretria five, and the fleet helped spread rebellion all along the coast. In 498 BC the Greeks captured and burnt Sardis, thereby requiring a Persian response in the form of an invasion. The Greek fleet was crushed at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC, and the Ionian cities sacked, although they were permitted to have democratic governments afterwards. In 492 BC, an army commanded by Darius's son-in-law Mardonius overran Thrace and Macedonia, followed in 490 BC by the punitive expedition of Datis and Artaphernes. The islands of the Cyclades surrendered, Eretria was captured, and the expedition landed in Attica near Marathon. Phidippides got the message for help to Sparta in record time, but in the end the Athenians and Plataeans alone defeated the Persians in the battle of Marathon. full text »  ▪   History of Babylonia History of Babylonia Babylonia was an ancient state in Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq), combining the territories of Sumer and Akkad. Its capital was Babylon. The earliest mention of Babylon can be found in a tablet of the reign of Sargon of Akkad, dating back to the 23rd century BC. During the first centuries of the "Old Babylonian" period (that followed the Sumerian revival under Ur-III), kings and people in high position often had Amorite names, and supreme power rested at Isin. A constant intercourse was maintained between Babylonia and the West - with Babylonian officials and troops passing to Syria and Canaan, while "Amorite" colonists were established in Babylonia for the purposes of trade. One of these Amorites, Abi-ramu or Abram by name, is the father of a witness to a deed dated in the reign of Hammurabi's grandfather. The city of Babylon was given hegemony over Mesopotamia by their sixth ruler, Hammurabi (1780–1750 BC; dates highly uncertain). He was a very efficient ruler, giving the region stability after turbulent times, and transforming it into the central power of Mesopotamia. full text »  ▪   Joan of Arc Joan of Arc St. Joan of Arc (French Jeanne d'Arc) (1412 – 30 May 1431), is a national heroine of France and a Saint of the Catholic Church. This deeply religious young woman from a humble background believed she had visions from God telling her to recover her homeland. In early 1429 she convinced the uncrowned king Charles VII to give her a suit of armor and permission to relieve the siege at Orleans. At first treated as a figurehead by veteran commanders, she gained prominence by lifting the siege in only nine days. After several other engagements and an important victory at Patay she led a bloodless expedition to Rheims for Charles VII's coronation. This settled the disputed royal succession and recovered important territory. The renewed French confidence outlasted her own brief career. Wounded during an unsuccessful attempt to recover Paris, she participated in minor actions until her capture outside Compiegne the following spring. Her Burgundian captors delivered her to the English, who selected clergymen to convict her of heresy. John, Duke of Bedford had her burnt at the stake in Rouen. She had been the heroine of her country at the age of seventeen. She died at just nineteen. Some twenty-four years later Pope Callixtus III reopened the case at the request of Joan's surviving family members and the Inquisitor-General. Citing testimony in her favor and illegalities in the original trial, the new finding reversed the original conviction.1 Her piety to the end impressed this court. Support from the Catholic League in the 16th century and renewed interest in the 19th led to her canonization by Pope Benedict XV on May 16, 1920. Joan of Arc has remained an important figure in the collective imagination of Western culture. From Napoleon to the present French politicians of all leanings have invoked her memory. Major writers and composers who created works about her include Shakespeare, Voltaire, Schiller, Verdi, Tchaikovski, Twain, Shaw, and Brecht. Depictions of her continue in songs, films and on television. full text »  ▪   Marian Reforms Marian Reforms Caius Marius is a more noteworthy figure in history from his rugged, uncouth personality and his startling political success and failure than from his merit as a captain. Though unquestionably able as a leader, though Rome owed to him the victory at Aquć Sextić, which delivered her from the Cimbri and Teutones, his position in military annals was more distinguished by the new organization of the Roman army than by any other contribution to the art of war. full text »  ▪   Peloponnesian War Peloponnesian War The Peloponnesian War began in 431 BC between the Athenian Empire (or The Delian League) and the Peloponnesian League which included Sparta and Corinth. The war was documented by Thucydides, an Athenian general, in his work History of the Peloponnesian War. Most of the extant comedies of Aristophanes were written during this war, and poke fun at the generals and events. The war lasted 27 years, with a 6-year truce in the middle, and ended with Athens' surrender in 404 BC. full text »  ▪   Religions of Roman Empire The Religions of the Roman Empire The religions of the Roman Empire, with the exception of Judaism and Christianity, were polytheistic. Polytheism often poses significant problems for those educated in a Judaeo-Christian tradition. There is a tendency to view polytheism as primitive and regard monotheism as a more logical system of religious belief. This is to misunderstand fundamentally the nature of religion in this period. Jewish, Christian and Islamic traditions tend to view religion as a coherent system. Paganism was incoherent. There were very many gods. There were gods of particular places and particular functions, and even gods such as Apollo had many separate aspects and his powers were divided between his many temples. This multiplicity of different gods and different divine names and the multiple divisions of gods between different functions and locations posed no significant problems for ancient writers until the Christian period. full text »  ▪   Roman Architecture Roman Architecture Under the Flavian dynasty the Urbs underwent another radical transformation, itself the outcome of new religious and Imperial ideals which found expression in new architectural forms and strongly affected the plastic arts. "The age of the Flavians," as Rivoira points out, "has characteristics of its own, and stands out by the imposing scale of its buildings, which also show notable innovations both in plan and structure," but there was no real break with tradition. Changes were gradual and the reversal of Nero's building policy after his death was not as sudden as is generally represented. In the tragic year of the Four Emperors, Otho endeavored to finish the Golden House. full text »  ▪   Roman History The Fall of the Roman Empire ...Although Rome's crippled economy and the disintegration of the military were huge factors in Rome's decline and fall, the progression of time itself was also a probable cause of the fall. During the span of Rome's decline and fall, many social changes were occurring and the Romans simply could not cope quickly enough to sustain their empire. full text »  ▪   Romanization and Hellenization Romanization and Hellenization The development of urban centers on a Roman model is one of the most obvious facets of Romanization. Such settlements can be seen in all the conquered lands of the West. Typically, the centre would have a regular street plan where the intersections of the streets formed regular rectangular blocks. The two main streets (the cardo and decumanus ) ran through the geometric centre of the city and, near where these streets crossed, the Forum would be situated. The Forum would have a basilica, temples and other Roman-style buildings. The city would normally also be provided with baths. full text »  ▪   Sparta Sparta Sparta was an ancient city in Greece, the capital of Laconia and the most powerful state of the Peloponnesus. Tradition relates that Sparta was founded by Lacedaemon, son of Zeus and Taygete, who called the city after his wife, the daughter of Eurotas. But Amyclae and Therapne (Therapnae) seem to have been in early times of greater importance than Sparta, the former a Minoan foundation a few miles to the south of Sparta, the latter probably the Achaean capital of Laconia and the seat of Menelaus, Agamemnon's younger brother. Eighty years after the Trojan War, according to the traditional chronology, the Dorian migration took place. A band of Dorians united with a body of Aetolians to cross the Corinthian Gulf and invade the Peloponnese from the northwest. Sparta was the main power in ancient Greece before the rise of Athens after the Persian Wars. Initially, Sparta and Athens were reluctant allies, but soon became rivals. The second and third conflicts between the two states, which resulted in the dismantling of the Athenian Empire, is generally known as the Peloponnesian War. Spartan attempts to take over the Athenian role of 'guardian of Hellenism' ended in failure, and the first ever defeat of a Spartan hoplite army at full strength at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC. By the time of the rise of Alexander the Great, Sparta was a shadow of its former self, and was eventually forced into the Achaean League. Spartans continued their way of life even after the Roman conquest of Greece. The city became something of a "tourist trap" for the Roman elite who came to observe the "unusual" Spartan people. Following the disaster that befell the Roman Imperial Army at the Battle of Adrianople, Spartan phalanges met and defeated a force of raiding Visigoths in battle. This is considered the last noteworthy deed of the Spartans. full text »  ▪   Sulla Sulla Sulla was one of the ablest generals of his era. He learned his trade under Marius. He first used earthworks in battle to protect his lines, and at Orchomenus he used fieldworks to hem in his enemy. Sulla was bold and discreet; he was both lion and fox. Pompey was one of those captains upon whom greatness happens to be thrust. Of good but not high ability, exceptional fortune enabled him to reap the benefit of the hard work of others. He was slow and lacked initiative, but did some of his work well. His early successes in Sicily and Africa earned him the title of Great at twenty-four; but when he went to Spain and opposed Sertorius, one of the most noteworthy generals of antiquity, he more than met his match. Only the death of Sertorius enabled him to win success. full text »  ▪   pharaoh Pharaoh The term derives ultimately from the Egyptian words Pr-Aa meaning "Great House". Originally a term for the royal palace, this word came into vogue to refer to the king. The earliest certain instance of the term "pharaoh" is in a letter addressed to Thutmose III in the mid-Eighteenth Dynasty (1539-1292 BC). By the Twenty-second Dynasty (c. 945-c. 720 BC) this usage had been extended and was now used occasionally just as hm.f "His Majesty" was used in earlier periods. It was not the official title but was used in letters to the monarch. It is frequently used by modern historians due to its use in the Bible, especially the Book of Exodus, and in the Ancient Greek and Roman writers; although the Bible, at least in the Hebrew original, treats Pharaoh like a proper name rather than like a title. full text »  Don't hesitate! 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