Because Eastern Europe was economically and militarily dominated for decades by the Soviet Union, its policies during the Cold War were largely dictated by the Soviet Union. The economic emphasis in the years after World War II ended (in 1945) was on reconstruction, followed by an emphasis on heavy industry. With repression of dissent and little opportunity for public participation in government, environmental issues received little attention; greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions began to be seen as an important issue only about the time of the breakup of the Soviet Union, in 1991. Since 1991, the countries of Eastern Europe have tended to adopt Western European practices and policies.

In 1997, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Romania, and Bulgaria applied for admission to the European Union. All except Romania and Bulgaria were admitted in 2004. Romania and Bulgaria were admitted in 2007. Macedonia and Croatia have applied for admission. All Eastern European countries, except Kosovo, have ratified or accepted the Kyoto Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol calls for signatories to reduce their GHG emissions relative to 1990 emissions--that is, relative to levels before the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The economic turmoil following the breakup of the Soviet Union caused all countries of the former Soviet Union and the countries of Eastern Europe to suffer serious economic declines. The former Yugoslavia, though not a Soviet satellite, nevertheless suffered its own breakup in the 1990's and also experienced serious economic decline. As a result, despite having a great deal of inefficient and antiquated infrastructure, the nations of Eastern Europe are well below their Kyoto emissions targets. Their total emissions, roughly the equivalent of a billion tons of carbon dioxide, are approximately a third lower than their targets, which are about 1.3 billion tons. The economic cloud over Eastern Europe has its silver lining: Eastern European countries have large emissions allowances that can be traded, as well as a substantial margin for growth.

Eastern Europe is characterized by several themes. First is the legacy of domination by the Soviet Union: inefficiency, corruption, and in some areas organized crime. Inexperience with market economies has led to conditions such as severe inflation in Bulgaria in 1997 and the collapse of the Albanian economy through pyramid investment schemes that same year. Transparency International, which publishes a Corruption Perceptions Index based on a variety of reports by business, government, and human rights groups, gave Slovenia the highest (least corrupt) ranking, at number 26 of 180 countries surveyed in 2008--comparable to some Western European countries. Several other Eastern European countries had much lower ratings. Nevertheless, all Eastern European countries had substantially less corruption than Russia, which ranked 147th.

Unresolved ethnic tensions continue to be important in Eastern Europe. Ethnic Albanians are split between Albania itself and the neighboring region of Kosovo in former Yugoslavia. Kosovo, in turn, contains Serbian enclaves that object to separation from Serbia. There is a significant Hungarian population in northern Serbia and southern Slovakia. The independent country of Moldova is a former slice of Romania annexed by the Soviet Union. Greece objects to the name Macedonia out of concern that it might serve to justify claims on territory in Greece that is also called Macedonia. As a result, the nation of Macedonia is officially called by the cumbersome title Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.

Some Eastern European countries, especially those that had democratic and capitalist traditions before Soviet domination, have successfully resumed their previous courses. Considering the repressive governments of the Cold War era, the countries of Eastern Europe have made remarkable progress toward democratization. The Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Hungary are all rated 1 for political and civil liberty by Freedom House, the highest rating. Bulgaria, Croatia, and Romania are rated 2, that is, highly free but with some restrictions. Albania and the countries of former Yugoslavia are mostly rated 3 in each area, that is, partly free. The lower ratings in these countries stem from weak democratic traditions and the aftereffects of strife during the breakup of Yugoslavia. In contrast, Russia in 2009 rated 6 in political freedom and 5 in civil liberties.

All the Eastern European countries, except disputed Kosovo, have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol. They are less developed than the countries of Western Europe, and as they seek to grow economically they will face the interlocking problems of meeting increased consumer demand while simultaneously attempting to replace inefficient infrastructure and reform environmental safeguards. However, like Russia, the comparatively low level of industry in Eastern Europe, plus the drop in productivity during the transition from communist to capitalist economies, gives these countries a significant buffer zone that will enable them to grow but still remain within their Kyoto targets. Eastern Europe is about one-third below its Kyoto emissions target. Also, replacement of aging and obsolete infrastructure will enable the nations of Eastern Europe to install more environmentally friendly infrastructures rather than having to grapple with modifications of existing ones. Finally, membership in the European Union gives the member countries of Eastern Europe access to funding for development.

Bibliography:

1)         Bideleux, Robert, and Ian Jeffries. A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. New York: Routledge, 2007.

2)         Douma, W. Th., L. Massai, and M. Montini, eds. The Kyoto Protocol and Beyond: Legal and Policy Challenges of Climate Change. West Nyack, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

3)         United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Regional Forum on Industrial Cooperation and Partnership in Central and Eastern Europe and the Newly Independent States. Vienna, 2006.

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