The political thought of China from the Shang and Chou dynasties to the present time. The dominant philosophies of Chinese philosophy are: (1) Confucianism; (2) legalism; and (3) Taoism. Although 20thcentury China drew from many Western ideas (Liberalism, Communism, Capitalism, Democracy), the thought and culture of ancient China continues to influence modern China.

The dominant political thought (and religion) of China is Confucianism, from the Chinese thinker Confucius (551-479 B.C.) and his book, The Analects. According to this collection of classic Chinese wisdom and sayings, the ideal government has the rule of virtue and moral example rather than military might or hereditary privilege. Confucius's emphasis on restoring the religious ceremonies of the Chou dynasty reflected his belief that goodness consisted of dignified order, calm, wisdom, and devotion to the common good. A wise, moral, self-controlled ruler will govern by the strength of his character and noble example rather than by worldly power or clever deals. A good government will earn the respect of others, and subjects will want to be under their authority. A truly Confucian emperor will have people of similar high character and virtue (civilized gentlemen) in other positions of public trust. Well-educated, refined persons will display the cardinal virtue of human nature: "benevolence," which will inspire the common people to strive for higher, noble things. Brute force or crass self-interest are signs of corrupt human nature and statecraft.

Strongly patriarchal, Confucian thought sees the state as an extension of the father-ruled family. In both, women and children and subjects are to be obedient to the father-ruler. But the man rules gently and graciously; his authority is not harsh or cruel. The orderly hierarchy of virtue and knowledge (as in Plato's Republic) creates "heaven"--an earthly, not a spiritual, paradise. The rule of the wise and good over the ignorant and evil reflects a divine order and symmetry. Hence, Chinese politics often elevates the scholar and sage over the worker and peasant.

Confucian political theory was developed by Mencius (372-289 B.C.). He followed Confucian philosophy by seeing four embryonic virtues in the hearts of humans, but almost in Augustinian Christian terms, saw human desire and selfishness ("sin" for Christians) as predominant in uncultivated humans, which is the source of all violence, crime, and evil, hence the need to revive ancient ceremonies and customs to "civilize" humans and prevent chaos and disorder.

Legalism provided an alternative school of thought to Confucianism in China. A collection of thinkers and politicians dating from the third century B.C., legalists emphasize legal rules and administrative procedures as the source of order and justice. Similar to the Western tendency to rely on universal (Roman) law and bureaucracy, the legalists depended less on the character of the rulers and more on the system of government, codes, regulations, and laws.

Taoist political theory rests on the view that the world is vain and absurd, incapable of order or goodness, and plagued by foolishness and dysfunction. The wise person, therefore, cultivates a detachment from the world and achieves an otherworldly calm and peace. Because the world and politics are ridiculous and useless, the best ruler is one who does not take it too seriously but admires rural simplicity and detachment, only ruling out of a sense of duty and resignation.

Another strain of Chinese political thought emphasizes military discipline and the need for aggressive warfare. Mo Tzu (470-391 B.C.) regarded Confucian ceremony and ancestor worship as foolish and exclusive. His military government regarded the common people as equal and fighting as the highest activity. This part of Chinese ideology continues throughout its history in violent nationalist warfare.

Throughout Chinese history, these philosophical perspectives are interwoven and blended, resulting in policy often confusing to Westerners. High-minded ethics combined with brutal authoritarian warfare seems inconsistent to many Western minds, but they reflect the blending of ancient Chinese traditions. Twentieth-century adoptions of Liberal Democracy, Marxism, communism, and capitalism (for example, in Mao Tse-Tung) reflect these ancient Chinese schools of thought.

The communist revolution in 1949 blended Marxist-Leninist theories of economic class struggle and capitalist Imperialism with traditional Chinese political philosophy and nationalist sentiments. Its leader Mao Tse-Tung employed a communist view of China's economic problems (capitalist exploitation and imperialism from European powers) with a nationalist defense against Japanese invaders drawing on Chinese peasant masses. Hence, in latter 20th-century political thought, China's dominant ideology is summarized as "Marxist-Leninist-Mao Tse-tung Thought." In it, unlike orthodox (Stalinist) Marxism (which saw peasants as economically backward and politically reactionary), Chinese communist theory emphasized the revolutionary socialist "masses" (including industrial workers or "proletariat" and agrarian peasants) because the vast majority of people in China were poor rural farmers.

Mao's communism also drew on traditional Confucian ideas through his emphasis on "correct thinking or consciousness" and "self-criticism" as the basis of political correctness and social progress. His "let a hundred flowers bloom, a hundred schools of thought contend" during the cultural revolution of the late 1950s reflects political thought of the Chou dynasty (700 B.C.). Maoism's warning that even a communist revolution could be ruined by an oppressive bureaucratic state (as in the Soviet Union) derives from traditional Eastern wisdom. The Chinese government's reaction to his anarchic cultural revolution, in favor of order, respect for authority, and peace, reflects traditional Chinese legalistic philosophy.

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